Constructive Alignment explained

A brief video introduction to constructive alignment, how it's more difficut than it sounds and soem guidance on improving your ability to use it consistently

The hidden structure of teacher explanations

Purposes of teacher talk.

Before we can consider the structure of a teacher explanation we must first consider the purpose of that talk.
Teachers talk a lot. And so we should. Much of the visible art of teaching comes from the moments when we open our mouths. With between 10% and 30% of lesson time being spent explaining, we must be confident that this is time well spent and that our explanations are effective. Teacher talk is a mix of content explanation with talk of motivation, emotions, strategy, instructional guidance, questioning and feedback. As befitting something that is aimed at developing an understanding of other people, teacher talk is far from a simple construct. 

For me teachers talk mainly for the following 11 reasons: 

• Context setting.
• Engage and maintain interest.
• Represent new information.
• Emphasise the important.
• Differentiation.
• Build a narrative.
• Sharing Procedural knowledge.
• Guide students to generate the knowledge themselves.
• Summaries and Plenaries.
• Stimulate student thinking.
• Build and maintain relationships within the classroom

Legitimate Code Theory as an analysis tool.

Although teacher talk is a very visible part of our craft, the actual structures within it are not, or at least they are shrouded in complexity. So stumbling around the internet the other day,  I came across the field of Legitimate Code Theory (LCT), which claims to among other things,to help to make the "invisible visible" in order to reveal the rules of the game. Now as a dyed in the wool Nuthalian this intrigued me. This blog, incidentally , is not about LCT, I know way too little to explain it or to have an opinion of its use, although there are some case studies of its use in classrooms that I would like to explore.  Being able to see why the art of teacher talk is successful is always an opportunity not to be missed. So, I watched this video, which is (hopefully) embedded to start at the relevant part, although watching it all is recommended.

Professor Karl Maton explains the background of this case study, describing the same class in the previous academic year as unruly and under-performing. They had been transformed one year later, with a different teacher. Now, teaching is complex and many factors may be at play, but due attention is made to the teacher. So they asked a the guiding question “Why did the teacher spend more time teaching content than the previous teacher?” To do this they attempted to isolate three simple focuses of  the content; the directions or instructions given; and the behaviour of the students. I like the simplicity of this and how they are able to track these through teacher talk with the LCT matrix. 

The matrix used to analyse the teacher talk and strategies requires some thought. I am happy to admit that I am below novice on the subject of LCT and this video is very much my introduction to it. So I hope that this simplified matrix  helps make clear what it looks like. I think it helped me follow what was happening and relate it to teacher skills. I hope it's not too simplified to be insulting to an expert in the field.

Maton uses the phrase a "autonomy tour" to describe the process of moving between the quadrants of the matrix. For instance starting talking about content, then leaving and talking about other concepts, process, ideas and then returning to the original content. Maton sees this as a way teachers can integrate knowledge. So in this case the content being taught is integrated with directions for students and expectations of behaviour. By doing so students see a model more than just the content, for instance how to select and use examples from sources as shown by the teachers use of video. Fellow Nuthalians will hear loud and clear Nuthall's first premise of "students learn what they do". Maton goes onto suggest that this teachers success with this class is down to this integration. I especially like Maton’s phrase "bring it back home" to emphasise that this teachers talk, although not exclusively about the target content, finds a connected way of returning back to what he was trying to teach. Everything is therefore about learning the content. It strikes me that this a method that Expert Teachers would use to increase the amount of redundancy in their teacher talk- they find other ways of saying the same thing. 

Analysis

The teacher talk begins on content and solely about the content. Each picture will have the teacher talk, the current code or type and purpose of the talk and any moves that is being made across the matrix as the teacher takes a "tour". It is important to realise that the desired quadrant, that of talking about this lessons core content is only desirable for this lesson. Other situations will require talk or actions in differing parts, and indeed in this situation how other parts support the learning of the core content.

This is followed by content away from the specific content being taught, but it is still 

subject knowledge that the students will cover later in the year. So remains in the “home” quadrant, but with a lesser relationship.

Talk then stops even being about the subject, and is now about students own experience. Briefly leaving the home quadrant and where the importance of what is being said is beyond this lesson, but there is a link that the teacher is exploiting to bring student experience to mind. This is another feature of what I would recognise as an expert teacher strategy. Expert Teachers increase the relevance of the material being taught to the students. 

This is not just shallow, hat tip towards the kids, this relevance is used to engage the students, before returning back to the main content with the all important why. By stating this he is increasing the relevance of the content., another expert teacher behaviour.

He then goes out again to make clear some other knowledge, and everyday experience that will make subsequent content discussion more understandable. Again this is a nice example of an expert teacher making the content more relevance, but this time by establishing useful prior knowledge.

Once more the teacher talk returns to the core concept being taught, making this a good example of an expert teacher getting back on track. That is to say, despite the explanation necessitating an off topic idea,  in this case hygiene, it is woven back into the narrative of being under siege in a castle. The knowledge is once again brought back home.

Structure of the explanation

Hidden within this narrative is another Expert Teachers behaviour that of being able to problematise the concepts being taught. Explanations are composed of three simple parts; a problem to be explained, a person to do the explaining and someone to explain to.  Yet, I would wager that we teachers sometimes rush, or skim or worse still miss the problem part out all too often. The reason for this is obvious, we know the answer. The problem teachers face when dealing with this is desirability; our knowledge, the correct knowledge, is what we want our students to have. However, this ambition can cause us to forget that the vastness of the difference in the depth and quality of knowledge that we possess, as subject experts and that of our students. We simply see things in a more holistic, joined up and detailed way. The temptation to delude ourselves by telling students just ‘the facts’ is therefore pretty strong. So he sets  up a problem to teach to. The choice of reading material helps, by giving a bigger overview. This reminds me of Nuthall’ second premise “ effective activities are built around big questions.”

But the teacher spots the problem, or might that be an opportunity, to explain. The text only uses the word "disease" and this is what he focuses his narrative upon. He set it up, by following up the reading of the text with a context in which the students are to think and learn. He says something like " What this text is about is the importance of castles and what happens when the castle is under siege" This "what happens when" is the problem setting part of his explanation. This is one way Expert teachers problematise their teaching. 

The lesson moves on requires use of a video. In some ways, when teachers do this they are delegating responsibility for the explanation to someone else. Part of the problem is that videos will contain a lot more information than the core ideas the teachers wish to get across. Some of which will not be germane. So their selection, and use requires a great deal of thought from the teacher. In doing so this teacher demonstrates another two expert teacher behaviours: that Expert Teachers are more selective in the choices of example they use and they increase the relevance of the material being taught to the students. As this teachers talks he constantly talks about the content, the "what" and the “why”. He does this for both the content, directions and behaviour. It is in this talk that he directs students to the relevant materials and ideas. His direction towards the relevant bits starts with the simple prefixing of the video with questions

Importantly,  it is the teacher talk and discussion that ensures the knowledge is brought "back home". 

The video then takes us on a tour of the teacher instructional structure.

It starts with a directional focus

the video is then described as a combination of educative and entertainment content, that is not (yet) related to the core content being taught. It cross two quadrants as it is loosely content related and context setting.

The teacher then returns to the content by prompting students to answer the first question. At this point it becomes clear that this teacher is highly structured in his explanations/ lesson. Expert Teacher do provide more structured explanations than non expert. The intriguing thing for me, as a teacher, is that this is pretty much invisible in his communication, but by golly it is there. in his teaching...

... and in the elaborations he makes to the student responses. The knowledge is brought back home.

Another "autonomy" tour is then started  by setting directions and making clear the "why" of the process.

The conclusion drawn is that the teacher success comes from the integration of content, direction and behaviour so that:

Thoughts

I have just come across LCT as an idea, and it feels useful. Now I am not sure if this because I recognise, the behaviours and aspects of the teaching that allows me to follow Matons narrative, and whether I would see the "invisible" in a context that I am less aware of remains to be seen. But I am intrigued. What I find useful is the slowing down and examining of a teachers art to see the skills and behaviours that make what they do visible and therefore learnable.

Since watching, two strategies have become clear to making my explanations better. Firstly, I have been keen to ensure I keep purposes clear for students, giving clear why to content and to task. Secondly, I have been aware of where of the extra content needed to make new learning accessible and most importantly how to bring it back home. This requires thought of not only when to introduce it, but when to integrate it. This is pedagogical content knowledge in its purest form- how are our subject learned.

A Portrait of Expertise.

There are only a few pieces of writing that have struck a pedagogical chord with me. The ones that have made you stop and think again about the how, the why and the complexity of what we do as teachers are rare. One such piece is "Knowledge and Teaching: foundations of the New Reform" by Lee Shulman. It is an odd piece, not research, not necessarily for teachers but an opinion piece on policy and reforming teacher education way back in 1987. In 1987 I had an embryonic quiff and had started to like the Smiths.

The first two sentences of the article nails it, and was perhaps true until Graham Nuthalls work came along. It says:

"Richly developed portrayals of expertise in teaching are rare. While many characterisations of effective teachers exist, most of these dwell on the teachers management of the classroom"

In researching my forthcoming book, The Expert Teacher, this pretty much describes alot of what is out there.

Shulman develops what is believes is more important:

"We find few descriptions or analyses of teachers that give careful attention not only to the management of the students in the classrooms, but also to the management of ideas with classroom discourse". (my emphasis are italicised and Shulmans is in bold.

This is still true today. We rarely speak of management the learning of ideas in teacher texts, yet it is entirely right that both are necessary for a successful lesson/class/teacher. For me,this makes Nuthalls studies so enlightening,as he  pursued the ideas during the process of learning to give real insight. In identifying the management of ideas Shulman creates a purposeful way of introducing the very important concept of Pedagogical Content knowledge: the knowledge teachers have that allows them to manage ideas in the classroom.

The second paragraph of the article then provides the most wonderful portrait of expertise, written by the mysterious Gudmundsdottir. (Sadly, the full text is to be found in an unpublished Doctoral dissertation called Knowledge use among experienced teachers: Four case studies of high school teaching) This piece of writing is one that I keep re-reading, as it is both succinct and rich. What follows are my thoughts and interpretation of this portrait of an expert teacher.

The first four words of the portrait tell us exactly how teachers develop. It takes time. 25 years of time. Time that the profession is rapidly loosing. Nancy, the subject of the portrait is a teacher who is part of "continuing study" of experience teachers. Continuing study instantly suggests that mere snapshots are not enough in capturing the nuanced complexities of what teachers do. Again, my mind is reminded of the complexities that Nuthalls work revealed. For instance. 

Nancy depth of knowledge of her subject and pedagogy is highlighted which begins Shulmans definition of Pedagogical Content Knowledge.  It is this unique combination of knowledge that makes a teachers professional knowledge unique, purposeful and special. 

The initial descriptive of her classroom does exactly what Shulman says usual classroom descriptions do: it describes the management of the classroom. Nancy "tempers boisterousness" and behaves like a "symphony conductor" Nancy teaches, prompts thinking and students interaction with her and the ideas being taught. It is clear that Nancy knows her students and everything that is occuring in her classroom, and it is the "substantial interaction" that would allow allow her make the assessments to make decisions about pacing, ordering and necessary structuring described. 

However, this is not what makes this portrait special. As yet there has been no mention of the management of ideas. But what follows reveals the innerworkings of an expert teachers mind.

Nancy knows what she expects of the students with this particular piece of content, and how their knowledge will develop. Additionally she has already worked out the questions and teaching prompts needed for a range of teaching situations. She refers to:what the students may need to do; her questions; what is most important.There is purpose and priority in her thinking and it is clear that she is combing knowledge of the content and of pedagogy. 

Shulman describes this as a"conceptual framework", that she uses guide "her own sequencing of material and formulation of questions" and how to "divide [the content] appropriately for assignments and activities". Over the years  teachers develop their PCK,  and this was the first glimpse we were given. 

So far the following ideas of what expert teachers know have been highlighted:

1. What the key ideas are for each topic
2. How to use these key incidences are for differing pedagogical purposes.
3. What content is most difficult.
4. How to organise the content for differnt students.
5. Where to place emphasis and
6. How to place knowledge into themes.

A framework for trawling through our PCK in more detail can be found here.

What follows in the portrait deepens what we understand about expert teachers. The day Nancy arrives to work ill, barely able to speak. Nancy's teaching style, previously described as pretty much evrything passing "through Nancy" transforms into much more student led teaching style,that remains organised that allowed a students to engage with the content with care. Expert teachers have this flexibility as they have PCK, their knowledge goes beyond merely knowing the subject well, they know, and can apply their rich knowledge of pedagogy to different situations, students and content. Importantly they know that successful teaching looks has more than one "style".  What is especially glorious about this article is the celebratory feeling it gives about teacher knowledge. Nancy's ability is described as "dazzling" and "virtuosity" of the learners in her care. For me the focus on classroom management belies the ability and professional knowledge that the teaching profession has.







Shulman closes this section with two key questions, that bring me back to this article.

1. What is it important for me to believe, understand  and know to allow me teach as well as I possibly can? What are the gaps? What is next for me to develop?

2. What can we do to help other teachers teach with Nancy's skill? 

The second is question is as important as the first. Teacher collaboration and sharing of practice are key to our development. PCK gives us the framework through which we can become expert. 

The article then goes on to discuss and structure PCK in a more formal way, and is worth the read. But for me the work of Nancy is inspiring and she is the teacher I wish to be. 

Thinking about Whole Class Critique.

A lesson plan.

I'm not sure if this at all useful, I may not even press Publish.This is a lesson plan I produced for our recent visit. The lesson is my normal lesson, with the only addition is some differentiation that I wanted to make obvious. It was an ardous task, writing explanations of what I intended to do, or why I was doing a particular task. It also includes all that information about my students that I carry in my head. It's this reason I may publish this. I think shows a whole lessons worth of pedagogical purposes. The lessons went very well , with the students finding stomatal pores "amazing" and students very confident about what Photosynthesis is and why it is important.

I think this lesson worked due to the contextual way  the content was structured, with Key  Questions . This helps with the engagement in the lesson. For example the starch testing practical was used to reinforce Photosynthesis an dnot just have a practical. The use of Formative assessment is used consistently throught the lesson. This is focussed on known misconceptions and the most important ideas being taught. Concession has been made for students remembering these ideas. For example planning to expose the students to the content at least 5 times over the session.

Bellwork	Image of an acorn and a tree and their respective masses. A slightly misleading question to draw out the misconception of “the soil” Random name selector – 5 or 6 passively recieved student answers before seeking whole class vote. Who agrees, and why? Listen out for Carbon dioxide, photosynthesis, the air, sunlight, water. Make sure it is clear that plants do not have big holes beneath them where they have “ate” the soil. BIG QUESTION- How do plants get food?” Just refer to the Bags, holes and leaves part of the learning journey.	Pedagogy explained Students grouped-in mixed ability with word rich and word poor together. Common misconception based on the research by Ross Driver. Random name- for multiple responses- allowing a formative decision to made about “pitch” of input. Big question- is just for the next two lessons. The following two on Photosynthesis a broader view is needed. Learning journey + effective formative bellwork and clear objectives = culminative effect size of 2.91 Geoff Petty.
Intentions	Highlighted are the MAIN Focus for this session Over the next 4 lessons student progress may look like this using SOLO taxonomy Prestructural     Plants get their food from the soil. CORRECTED Unistructural     Plants make their own food. Energy from the sun. Chlorophyll makes plants green The leaf is the organ of Photosynthesis Chlorphyll is a mixture Multistructural Name the raw materials and products Chlorophyll traps sunlight Recall the word equation Palisade cells responsible for photosynthesis Stomatal pores allow carbon dioxide in Relational           Chlorophyll found in chlorophyll traps sunlight Explain how starch proves that photosynthesis. Chlorophyll can trap light of different colours. Explain the process  photosynthesis Extended Abstract          Leaves are thin to allow diffusion to act quickly Describe How temperature, CO2 levels, sunlight levels effect the rate of photosynthesis Plants store food as starch as it doesn’t dissolve easily. The wider importance of photosynthesis is described PLUS – Practicing Scientific drawing and observation skills	To form a better lead into the content and link to key question- key question and learner journey left until return from biome.
Input	In Biome for context. Keywords on coloured paper to help introduce the word equation. BLUE paper – Water RED paper – carbon dioxide (as its toxic) Orange paper- Glucose ( lucozade/ energy) White paper – oxygen Green paper chlorophyll Yellow paper- sunlight Teacher input - Start by asking what’s in the bag? – water (poster start to construct word equation) Then  where did the water come from? Draw out knowledge soil, roots xylem to the leaves stomatal pores ( must be mentioned even as just small holes in the lower surface of the leaf)? Students will come across these during this module. Some may have been covered already depending upon your teaching order. Next ask “why would the plant take the trouble of sending water to the leaves?” a simple answer is useful here anything that suggest its going to be used- TELL them it’s for Photosynthesis. “what else does a plant take in?” possibly rephrased if needed what does a plant breathe in?” Some may respond Carbon dioxide others Sunlight. Take one and start to explain Carbon dioxide – How do you think the carbon dioxide gets into the leaf? – refer back to the stomatal pores- you may want to show how thin it is and link this to diffusion over a short distance. Should have come across this in placenta, intestine, lungs before. Sunlight- which organ of a plant absorbs the sunlight? And How do you know? Darker upper surface, large surface area, green colour all can be linked to a leafs adaptation for photosynthesis. Link the darker surface to the greater quantities of chlorophyll here, talk about how the lower surface would be in shade All the while build up the word equation, bring this back to the classroom and use it as a relevant display. Ask What do plants make with these? Or potentially rephrased as What do plants breathe out?	Structured input – designed to make connections to what they know and give students a sense of awe and place in the universe with regards to this reaction. Coloured paper coding will be used over the subsequent four lessons as a memory aid. Its is part of classroom display that will be added too over the course of these lessons. Students should leave this section really wanting to see Stomatal pores Another misconception is students tend to use breathe instead of exchange gases. This will not be addressed during this lesson, but correct nomenclature will be used at all times and breathed, shown to less favourable. It is expected that many students will be sensitive to this during this lesson. This is the first exposure to this information which will occur at least in 5 different ways with space in between. Nuthalls research shows this is how learning takes place. LEARNING( Progress if that’s your bag) TAKING PLACE- Misconceptions purposefully  addressed. Key terms such as raw materials, products, reaction photosynthesis, stomatal pore, chlorophyll, energy all introduced in a connected an coherent, contextual way.
Construct	Key ideas and what they are learning about are shared Students reminded of how to use a light microscope in technical language.  Reference made to their work from the beginning to year 7 which is back on display. Success criteria from previous project shared once more . Students then use the microscope to observe Stomatal pores, epidermal cells and guard cells.  And make scientific drawings of them . UNDER THE TITLE OF DRAFT 1. Target the following students to ensure understanding of task MH, HE, JS, NS Allow students to focus on them and then begin to draw. This will be the briefest of attempts. Stop and critique Remind students of FEEDBACK NORMS. Kind Specific and helpful feedback against the success criteria. Then draft 2. Differentiated questioning during the microscope part. Consolidate questions-  ALL students How does a plant make food? What gas does the plant take in? What is the other raw material? What is photosynthesis? What is the name of the sugar produced? Extend questions- Where appropriate, dependent upon the response to prior questions. Where does the carbon dioxide get in? Is it good thing that water can get out? Do you think all plants will have the same number of stomatal pores? Looking for ideas of evaporation. Which surface of the leaf will get hottest? Stretch questions- especially DR DH SD JR HOW does CO2 get in? Diffusion and diffusion gradients? **Priority Where would you expect to get most stomata? Why do you think the plant has a waxy cuticle on its upper surface? Introduce the idea of Xylem- other plant tissues.	This is now in context. Yet more relevant display, PROGRESS demonstrated over time, students will quickly understand this technical language and use the microscope proficiently. Differentiated support- these students require confirmation of the task. Critique norms are BIG part of our school culture- how we speak and work and support one another. Drafting is a normal activity valued by students, they see it as a way of enhancing the quality of their work – LEARNING (progress) will be demonstrated between these tasks. Dwecks open mindset is being encouraged by doing this process regularly. Critique norms are always shared, to ensure a positive dialogue between students. It helps build our classroom community. Differentiated questions and discussions within this task. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPPORTUNITY. Check for understanding , re-explain where necessary. This is true for the literacy of the targeted students. The stretch questions are only for a few students. The introduction to this will be based on how they are getting on. Photosynthesis and its concepts are new and abstract. Working memory will only be holding up to 7 items of new knowledge, this is a priority and these are concepts where we could possibly
Demonstrate	Draw a leaf add arrows to show where Carbon dioxide has come from and a flow chart to show where water has come form to the leaf.  Check spelling of keywords on the diagrams Guard cell, stomatal pore, carbon dioxide. For JW, MW, JS, MH, HE, JC, HD	Bring notes together. Test do they know where the raw materials have come from.
Review	Formal review Watch the videos clips- note down what photosynthesis is and why it is important. What keywords should we add to the keyword list.	Return to context and importance of what is being learned. Mention of global warming, places the context in a social sphere. Literacy focus.
Bellwork session two	Which of the key questions can you now answer confidently, hesitantly, not yet? Revisit digestion- when you break down starch with saliva in your mouth, what is made? 5 R stamps for those who go back through their books- in from a class consolidate reflective behaviour	Review and feedback, to promote student ownership of outcomes Rewards
Learning Intentions	Driving question. How can we prove that a plant has photosynthesised? MAIN focus for this session are highlighted Prestructural     Plants get their food from the soil. CORRECTED Unistructural     Plants make their own food. Energy from the sun. Chlorophyll makes plants green The leaf is the organ of Photosynthesis Chlorphyll is a mixture Multistructural Name the raw materials and products Chlorophyll traps sunlight Recall the word equation Palisade cells responsible for photosynthesis Stomatal pores allow carbon dioxide in Relational           Chlorophyll found in chlorophyll traps sunlight Explain how starch proves that photosynthesis. Chlorophyll can trap light of different colours. Explain the process  photosynthesis Extended Abstract          Leaves are thin to allow diffusion to act quickly Describe How temperature, CO2 levels, sunlight levels effect the rate of photosynthesis Plants store food as starch as it doesn’t dissolve PLUS – THINKING AND ACTING LIKE A SCIENTIST	Developing the idea that Scientists require evidence so that they can then make inferences about how our world works. This is an important way in which we
Input	Artist easel activity- Teacher models how to do this. Differentiated task – two different reading levels- teacher issued task. Students read highlighting key ideas. Then draws images to represent this information Folds sheets explains to partner using only the images. Partner points out any gaps in knowledge Student then adds images that are missing.  Teacher to target JS, MW, HE, MH, JV, NS during this. AND any students that have found prior lesson difficult. This will need to identified during period 2. Class practical – sort out jumbled instructions- weak readers supported by scrolling powerpoint. Teacher gives correct method ensuring clear safety ethos.	Differentiation To begin to bring together what Photosynthesis is. Formative assessment opportunity. Peer assessment. Demonstrating learning (progress) Project for Enhancing Effective Learning strategy- designed to allow students to workout part or all of the instructions for themselves, encouraging ownership and understanding, FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY- Student understanding of method checked before moving on
Construct	SO HOW DO YOU TEST A LEAF FOR STARCH? Students test a leaf for starch. Focus on safety. Praise safe behaviour- goggles etc, good teamwork Highlight responsibility Consolidation questions – what is starch made from? What colour does IODINE turn when starch is present?
Demonstrate	Explain where the starch as come from. Differentiated. Key words and connectives. JR DR DH SD GH MH Question prompts. AH Gap fill task. JC NS MH LR	Hugely important task, consolidate what photosynthesis is. This is very difficult, at this point of the 4 lessons. But the students should get there with the correct task. Differentiation This task will be teacher marked and students will respond to it next lesson.
Review	Thumb tool on key questions 321 review I need/want to know more about….. 2 skills/ attributes I have excelled at … 3 most important ideas are	Whole class response And consolidation of key ideas- expecting a variety here, as this is how learning is. Nuthalls measures of uniqueness shows this.